sulla primary sources

[107], Mithridates, still in Asia, was faced with local uprisings against his rule. Some of these historians lived at the time of the events, and therefore, may actually be primary sources, but others, especially Plutarch (CE 45-125), who covers men from multiple eras, lived later than the events they describe. [6] He also disbanded his legions and, through these gestures, attempted to show the re-establishment of normal consular government. [84] Cinna, even before the election, said he would prosecute Sulla at the conclusion of the latter's consular term. He then reinforced this decision by legislation, retroactively justifying his illegal march on the city and stripping the twelve outlaws of their Roman citizenship. Rome at the End of the Punic Wars [History, Book 6] [At this Site] Acts of the Divine Augustus (Res Gestae Divi Augusti) [At MIT] The Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (40-93 CE), [At UNRV History] Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola (40-93 CE), c.98 CE trans. Cicero comments that Pompey once said, "If Sulla could, why can't I? 1011 accepts these inheritances without much comment and places them around Sulla's turning thirty years of age. Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo, merely an ex-aedile and one of Sulla's long-time enemies, had contested the top magistracy. You can use the following terms to search HOLLIS for primary sources:. La riunione periodica sulla sicurezza e la salute dei lavoratori deve essere convocata dal datore di lavoro e devono partecipare almeno il rappresentante dei lavoratori per la sicurezza (RLS) e il medico competente. In the natural and social sciences, primary sources are often empirical studies . In, Constitutional reforms of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic, L. Cornelius (392) L. f. P. n. Sulla Felix ('Epaphroditus'), Digital Prosopography of the Roman Republic, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sulla&oldid=1142439185. The United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, when the U.S. Congress agreed to a declaration of war. The allies in central and southern Italy had fought side by side with Rome in several wars and had grown restive under Roman autocratic rule, wanting instead Roman citizenship and the privileges it conferred. To further solidify the prestige and authority of the Senate, Sulla transferred the control of the courts from the equites, who had held control since the Gracchi reforms, to the senators. Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did. His troops were sufficiently impressed by his leadership that they hailed him imperator. The faculty and students of the Hanover College History Department initiated the Hanover Historical Texts Project in 1995, at a time when few primary sources were available outside of published anthologies. [123], After the younger Marius' defeat, Sulla had the Samnite war captives massacred, which triggered an uprising in his rear. However, despite this portrayal, particularly from Plutarch's accounts, it is difficult to determine just how culpable Marius and Sulla were for the chaos that engulfed the Roman Republic Sulla, meanwhile, had to allow matters to unfold beyond his control. Sulla, in full Lucius Cornelius Sulla or later Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, (born 138 bcedied 79 bce, Puteoli [Pozzuoli, near Naples, Italy]), victor in the first full-scale civil war in Roman history (88-82 bce) and subsequently dictator (82-79), who carried out notable constitutional reforms in an attempt to strengthen the Roman Republic during the last century of its existence. A primary source is a first-hand or contemporary account of an event or topic. [17] After his father's death, around the time Sulla reached adulthood, Sulla found himself impoverished. "[158], His excesses and penchant for debauchery could be attributed to the difficult circumstances of his youth, such as losing his father while he was still in his teens and retaining a doting stepmother, necessitating an independent streak from an early age. On each line there is a link to the page where the name can be found. In 109, Rome sent Quintus Caecilius Metellus to continue the war. Sulla then left for Capua before joining an army near Nola in southern Italy.[74]. These sources have not been modified by interpretation and offer original thought or new information. Moreover, the people knew that Sulla was friends with Bocchus, a rich foreign monarch, and rejected his standing for the praetorship to induce him to spend money on games. The personal motto was "no better friend, no worse enemy.". [23] The means by which Sulla attained the fortune which later would enable him to ascend the ladder of Roman politics are not clear; Plutarch refers to two inheritances, one from his stepmother (who loved him dearly) and the other from his mistress Nicopolis. [6] Keaveney places his departure to 93. He then fought successfully against Germanic tribes during the Cimbrian War, and Italian allies during the Social War. [citation needed], Sulla became embroiled in a political fight against one of the plebeian tribunes, Publius Sulpicius Rufus, on the matter of how the new Italian citizens were to be distributed into the Roman tribes for purposes of voting. The Athenian politician Aristion had himself elected as strategos epi ton hoplon and established a tyranny over the city. Pueblo, CO 81001. [112] However, this and Sulla's delay in Asia are "not enough to absolve him of the charge of being more concerned with revenge on opponents in Italy than with Mithridates". [91], During close of the Social War, in 89BC, Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus invaded Roman Asia. He's remembered best for bringing his soldiers into Rome, the killing of Roman citizens, and his military skill in several areas. Tip: If you are unsure if a source you have found is primary, talk to your instructor, librarian, or archivist. [25], The Jugurthine War had started in 112BC when Jugurtha, grandson of Massinissa of Numidia, claimed the entire kingdom of Numidia in defiance of Roman decrees that divided it among several members of the royal family. [45][46], While governing Cilicia, Sulla received orders from the Senate to restore Ariobarzanes to the throne of Cappadocia. The collection is particularly strong in the subject areas of education, psychology, American history, sociology, religion, and science and technology. Each actor's story is unique and each brings something important to the ensemble. Cornelius Lucius Sulla; Lucius Cornelius Cinna (elder) Marcus Licinius Crassus; Pompey the Great (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) Julius Caesar; Marcus . Cinna violently quarrelled with his co-consul, Gnaeus Octavius. [59] Sulla served as one of the legates in the southern theatre assigned to consul Lucius Julius Caesar. [141][140][142][143][144] Accounts were also written that he had an infestation of worms, caused by the ulcers, which led to his death. Later political leaders such as Julius Caesar would follow his precedent in attaining political power through force. [97], Early in 87BC, Sulla transited the Adriatic for Thessaly with his five legions. Sarah Cooper teaches 8th grade U.S. history and is assistant head for academic life at Flintridge Preparatory School in La Canada, Calif. Sarah is the . They are the most direct evidence of a time or event because they were created by people or things that were there at the time or event. Primary Sources on the Web: Finding, Evaluating, Using. What Is a Primary Source? was a major figure in the late Roman Republic. Marius and his son, along with some others, escaped to Africa. He used his powers to purge his opponents, and reform Roman constitutional laws, to restore the primacy of the Senate and limit the power of the tribunes of the plebs. [68] Shortly after Sulla's election, probably in the last weeks of the year, Sulla married his daughter to one of his colleague Pompeius Rufus' sons. If the latter, he may have married into the Julii Caesares. Ideally, each ensemble is diverse, both in cultural background and practical experience. Sulla (P. Cornelius Sulla) - Roman praetor, 212 B.C. The type of source you look for will depend on the stage you are at in the writing process. Sulla, undeterred, stood again for the praetorship the next year, promising he would pay for good shows; duly elected as praetor in 97BC, he was assigned by lot to the urban praetorship. [70][71] They were designed to regulate Rome's finances, which were in a very sorry state after all the years of continual warfare. At the same time, the younger Marius sent word to assemble the Senate and purge it of suspected Sullan sympathisers: the urban praetor Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus then had four prominent men killed at the ensuing meeting. Even those whom Sulla had quarrelled with (including Publius Cornelius Cethegus, whom Sulla had outlawed in 88 BC) defected to join his side. Due to his meeting the minimum age requirement of thirty, he stood for the quaestorship in 108BC. Sulla, in southern Italy, operated largely defensively on Lucius Julius Caesar's flank while the consul conducted offensive campaigning. According only to Appian, he then brought legislation to strengthen the Senate's position in the state and weaken the plebeian tribunes by eliminating the comitia tributa as a legislative body and requiring that tribunes first receive senatorial approval for legislation;[80] some scholars, however, reject Appian's account as mere retrojection of legislation passed during Sulla's dictatorship. Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that "Sulla now began to make blood flow, and he filled the city with deaths without number or limit," further alleging that many of the murdered victims had nothing to do with Sulla, though Sulla killed them to "please his adherents.". In 89BC, one of the tribunes of the plebs passed the lex Plautia Papiria, which granted citizenship to all of the allies (with exception for the Samnites and Lucanians still under arms). [72] Sulpicius' attempts to push through the Italian legislation again brought him into violent urban conflict, although he "offered nothing to the urban plebs so it continued to resist him". Sulla can be seen as setting the precedent for Julius Caesar's dictatorship, and for the eventual end of the Republic under Augustus. Family members of the proscribed were not excluded from punishment, and slaves were not excluded from rewards. [126] Sulla's specific movements are very vaguely described in Appian, but he was successful in preventing the Italians from relieving Praeneste or joining with Carbo. Campaigning on his military record, the people were unwilling to hear tales of military bravado from a mere junior officer after two triumphs. [104] When the Pontic cavalry attacked to interrupt the earthworks, the Romans almost broke; Sulla personally rallied his men on foot and stabilised the area. [115] Sulla, buoyed by his previous looting in Asia, was able to advance quickly and largely without the ransacking of the Italian countryside. [100], In the summer of 86BC, two major battles were fought in Boeotia. His troops prepared the ground by starting to dig a series of three trenches, which successfully contained Pontic cavalry. Threatened by the Pontic navy, Sulla sent his quaestor Lucullus to scrounge about for allied naval forces. He was awarded the Grass Crown for his bravery at the Battle of Nola. He attempted to mitigate this by passing laws to limit the actions of generals in their provinces, and although these laws remained in effect well into the imperial period, they did not prevent determined generals, such as Pompey and Julius Caesar, from using their armies for personal ambition against the Senate, a danger of which Sulla was intimately aware. Late in the year, Sulla cooperated with Marius (who was a legate in the northern theatre) in the northern part of southern Italy to defeat the Marsi: Marius defeated the Marsi, sending them headlong into Sulla's waiting forces. [2023] Welcome to The Internet History Sourcebooks Project, a collection of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts presented cleanly (without advertising or excessive layout) for educational use. Marius, in the midst of this military crisis, sought and won repeated consulships, which upset aristocrats in the Senate; they, however, likely acknowledged the indispensability of Marius' military capabilities in defeating the Germanic invaders. If Sulla hesitated it can only have been because he was not sure how his army would react. [69], Sulla started his consulship by passing two laws. [25] After the war started, several Roman commanders were bribed (Bestia and Spurius), and one (Aulus Postumius Albinus) was defeated. Sulla was a man to whom, up to victory, sufficient praise can hardly be given, and for whom, after victory, no criticism can be adequate. Marius (C. Marius) - Roman consul, seven times from 107 B.C. 9, The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146-43 BC. He dismissed his lictores and walked unguarded in the Forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen. Sulla's arrival in Brundisium induced defections from the Senate in Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, who had already fled from the Cinnan regime, raised an army in Spain, and departed for Africa to join with Metellus Pius (who also joined the Sullans), joined Sulla even before his landing in Italy. [75], Speaking to the men, Sulla complained to them of the outrageous behaviour of Marius and Sulpicius. Sulla's career is recounted in detail in Howard Hayes Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. Primary source is a term used in a number of disciplines to describe source material that is closest to the person, information, period, or idea being studied. The first of the leges Corneliae concerned the interest rates, and stipulated that all debtors were to pay simple interest only, rather than the common compound interest that so easily bankrupted the debtors. . This, of course, meant that many cases were never heard at all, as poorer clients did not have the money for the sponsio. Learning in Black and White. [81.3] Magnesia, the only city in Asia that remained loyal, was defended against Mithridates with the greatest courage. These two reforms were enacted primarily to allow Sulla to increase the size of the Senate from 300 to 600 senators. [108] Adding to his challenges was Lucullus' fleet, reinforced by Rhodian allies. [60], The next year, 89BC, Sulla served as legate under the consul Lucius Porcius Cato. [58] At the start of the war, there were largely two theatres: a northern theatre from Picenum to the Fucine Lake and a southern theatre including Samnium. [63] All of these victories would have been won before the consular elections in October 89. Through Sulla's reforms to the Plebeian Council, tribunes lost the power to initiate legislation. There, while giving a speech, he had three or four thousand Samnite prisoners butchered, to the shock of the attending senators. Find these with these special Subject terms. The collection currently contains . Student Engagement: Primary source materials "help spark students . Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix[8] (/sl/; 13878 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. Sulla hurried in full force towards Rome and there fought the Battle of the Colline Gate on the afternoon of 1 November 82BC. Sulla played an important role in the long political struggle between the optimates and populares factions at Rome. [125], Carbo, who had suffered defeats by Metellus Pius and Pompey, attempted to redeploy so to relieve his co-consul Marius at Praeneste. [122] Marius, buttressed by Samnite support, fought a long and hard battle with Sulla at Sacriportus that resulted in defeat when five of his cohorts defected. [89] After Octavius induced the senate to outlaw Cinna, Cinna suborned the army besieging Nola and induced the Italians again to rise up. J. Finally, in a demonstration of his absolute power, Sulla expanded the Pomerium, the sacred boundary of Rome, unchanged since the time of the kings. [48] The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation; the Parthians, however, ratified the treaty reached, which established the Euphrates as a clear boundary between Parthia and Rome. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. While Sulla was moving in the south, Scipio fought Pompey in Picenum but was defeated when his troops again deserted. "[133][134], At the end of 82 BC or the beginning of 81 BC,[135] the Senate appointed Sulla dictator legibus faciendis et reipublicae constituendae causa ("dictator for the making of laws and for the settling of the constitution"). In this first video of a 2-part tutorial, we will discuss primary sources. Works of art, in general, are considered primary sources. Some set their hearts on houses, some on landsThe whole period was one of debauched tastes and lawlessness. Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a Parthian ambassador. This mixture was later referred to by Machiavelli in his description of the ideal characteristics of a ruler. The historian Sallust fleshes out this character sketch of Sulla: He was well versed both in Greek and Roman literature, and had a truly remarkable mind. Church and W. J. Brodribb. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. During these marriages, he engaged in an affair with Nicopolis, who also was older than him. Pompey was then dispatched to recover Sicily. [27], When Marius took over the war, he entrusted Sulla to organise cavalry forces in Italy needed to pursue the mobile Numidians into the desert. This "firsthand" understanding of human motivations and the ordinary Roman citizen may explain why he was able to succeed as a general despite lacking any significant military experience before his 30s.[25]. He married again, with a woman called Aelia, of which nothing is known other than her name. [104], After the Battle of Chaeronea, Sulla learnt that Cinna's government had sent Lucius Valerius Flaccus to take over his command. For now, Cinna and the Marian political faction would have to wait, but revenge would prove far deadlier than anything that had come before it. [47], Sulla's campaign in Cappadocia had led him to the banks of the Euphrates, where he was approached by an embassy from the Parthian Empire. Sulla almost certainly received a normal education for his class, grounded in ancient Greek and Latin classics. under Gaius Marius in the wars against the Numidian rebel Jugurtha. [155] Plutarch notes that Sulla considered that "his golden head of hair gave him a singular appearance. Archives; Correspondence [34] The publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career. Primary sources are the evidence of history, original records or objects created by participants or observers at the time historical . Introduction. [93] News of these conquests reached Rome in the autumn of 89BC, leading the Senate and people to declare war; actual preparations for war were, however, delayed: after Sulla was given the command, it took him some eighteen months to organise five legions before setting off; Rome was also severely strained financially. [81.4] It note also contains an account of Thracian . The circumstances of his relative poverty as a young man left him removed from his patrician brethren, enabling him to consort with revelers and experience the baser side of human nature. Sulla, hearing this, feigned an attack while instructing his men to fraternise with Scipio's army. This, along with the increase in the number of courts, further added to the power that was already held by the senators. Primary sources are documents, images, relics, or other works that provide firsthand details of a historical or scientific event. Eyeglasses from Colonial America would be a primary source about Early American History. Sulla's law waived the sponsio, allowing such cases to be heard without it. The Senate immediately sent an embassy demanding an explanation for his seeming march on the fatherland, to which Sulla responded boldly, saying that he was freeing it from tyrants. As a result, "husbands were butchered in the arms of their wives, sons in the arms of their mothers. But it was from 59, Nero's fifth year as emperor that things started to go seriously . Of the twelve outlaws, only Sulpicius was killed after being betrayed by a slave. In an harangue to the people, he said, with reference to these measures, that he had proscribed all he could think of, and as to those who now escaped his memory, he would proscribe them at some future time. The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. They were, however, successful in holding Macedonia, then governed by propraetor Gaius Sentius and his legate Quintus Bruttius Sura. The young Gaius Julius Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, became one of Sulla's targets, and fled the city. 213/23 P.Cornelius Sulla is chosen to be Flamen Dialis. Click the title for location and availability information. [35], In 104BC, the Cimbri and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes who had bested the Roman legions on several occasions, seemed to again be heading for Italy. [109] When Flaccus' consular army marched through Macedonia towards Thrace, his command was usurped by his legate Gaius Flavius Fimbria, who had Flaccus killed before chasing Mithridates with his army into Asia itself. 106/10 The quaestor L.Sulla arrives at Marius' camp with reinforcements from [87], Sulla's ability to use military force against his own countrymen was "in many ways a continuation of the Social War a civil war between former allies and friends developed into a civil war between citizens what was eroded in the process was the fundamental distinction between Romans and foreign enemies". Sulla then served as legate under his former commander and, in that stead, successfully subdued a Gallic tribe which revolted in the aftermath of a previous Roman defeat. The ancient biography of Sulla written by Plutarch is useful. In a dispute over the command of the war against Mithridates, initially awarded to Sulla by the Senate, but withdrawn as a result of Marius' intrigues, Sulla marched on Rome in an unprecedented act and defeated Marian forces in battle. Having exhausted available provisions near Athens, doing so was both necessary to ensure the survival of his army and also to relieve a brigade of six thousand men cut off in Thessaly. Further, Sulla failed to frame a settlement whereby the army (following the Marian reforms allowing nonland-owning soldiery) remained loyal to the Senate, rather than to generals such as himself. . Provides tips on how to read and use primary sources in historical research. A primary source is an original object or document -- the raw material or first-hand information. Over the previous 300 years, the tribunes had directly challenged the patrician class and attempted to deprive it of power in favor of the plebeian class. Sulla's First Civil War (88-87 BC) was triggered by an attempt to strip him of the command against Mithridates and saw Sulla become the first Roman to lead an army against the city for four hundred years. In . vinifera, hereafter V. vinifera) shares a close relationship with humans ().With unmatched cultivar diversity, this food source (table and raisin grapes) and winemaking ingredient (wine grapes) became an emblem of cultural identity in major Eurasian civilizations (1-3), leading to intensive research in ampelography, archaeobotany, and historical . Primary Source 10. After some days, both sides engaged in battle. Sulla then increased the number of magistrates elected in any given year, and required that all newly elected quaestores gain automatic membership in the Senate. [49] At this meeting, Sulla was told by a Chaldean seer that he would die at the height of his fame and fortune. Archelaus tried to break out but were unsuccessful; Sulla then annihilated the Pontic army and captured its camp. [32] After the Senate approved negotiations with Bocchus, it delegated the talks to Marius, who appointed Sulla as envoy plenipotentiary. When Scipio refused, Sulla let him go. Revised on November 11, 2022. Guide to primary sources; Ask for help; CSU Pueblo University Library Email Me. Books. This distinction is important because it will affect how you understand these sources. If Plutarch's text is to be amended to "Julia", then she is likely to have been one of the Julias related to Julius Caesar, most likely. A gifted and innovative general, he achieved numerous successes in wars against foreign and domestic opponents. His third wife was Cloelia, whom Sulla divorced due to sterility. As this caused a general murmur, he let one day pass, and then proscribed 220 more, and again on the third day as many. Categories . [90] By the end of 87BC, Cinna and Marius had besieged Rome and taken the city, killed consul Gnaeus Octavius, massacred their political enemies, and declared Sulla an outlaw; they then had themselves elected consuls for 86BC. After massacring a number of Italian traders who supported one of his rivals, indignation erupted as to Jugurtha's use of bribery to secure a favourable peace treaty; called to Rome to testify on bribery charges, he successfully plotted the assassination of one another royal claimant before returning home. [41] After the failure of negotiations, the Romans and Cimbri engaged in the Battle of the Raudian Field in which the Cimbri were routed and destroyed. Capturing the city, Sulla had it destroyed. [61] Pompeii was taken some time during the year, along with Stabiae and Aeclanum; with the capture of Aeclanum, Sulla forced the Hirpini to surrender. [117] Sulla attempted to open negotiations with Norbanus, who was at Capua, but Norbanus refused to treat and withdrew to Praeneste as Sulla advanced. There, Sulla attacked him in an indecisive battle. At the meeting, he took the seat between the Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, and Ariobarzanes, seeking to gain psychological advantage over the Partian envoy by portraying the Parthians and the Cappadocians as equals with Rome as superior. The next year, 96BC, he assigned "probably pro consule as was customary" to Cilicia in Asia Minor. The proscriptions are widely perceived as a response to similar killings that Marius and Cinna had implemented while they controlled the Republic during Sulla's absence. This may have been related to Sulla's campaign for the consulship. [38] The next year, Sulla was elected military tribune and served under Marius,[39] and assigned to treat with the Marsi, part of the Germanic invaders, he was able to negotiate their defection from the Cimbri and Teutones. Reason #4: studying primary sources helps students become better citizens. Marius was elected consul and, through assignment by tribunician legislation, took over the campaign. For other uses, see, Portrait of Sulla on a denarius minted in 54 BC by his grandson, They were designed to regulate Rome's finances, which were in a very sorry state after all the years of continual warfare. Sulla 5 (L. Cornelius Sulla Felix) - Roman dictator, 82-79 B.C. [59], In the first year of fighting, Roman strategy was largely one of containment, attempting to stop the revolting allies from spreading their rebellion into Roman-controlled territory. Social War, also called Italic War, or Marsic War, (90-89 bc), rebellion waged by ancient Rome's Italian allies (socii) who, denied the Roman franchise, fought for independence. Sulla immediately proscribed 80 persons without communicating with any magistrate. [61] But after Cato's death in battle with the Marsi,[62] Sulla was prorogued pro consule and placed in supreme command of the southern theatre. [105] Sulla moved to intercept Flaccus' army in Thessaly, but turned around when Pontic forces reoccupied Boetia. The Senate moved the senatus consultum ultimum against him and was successful in levying large amount of men and materiel from the Italians. Primary sources are original . Historians to Sulla's dictatorship such as Livy (From the Founding of the City) and Appian (Roman History, especially the section regarding the Civil Wars) include additional details of Marius' life during the Social War while other sources list brief statements of note. [16] His father may have served as praetor, but details are unclear; his father married twice and Sulla' stepmother was of considerable wealth, which certainly helped the young Sulla's ambitions. Sulla had his enemies declared hostes, probably from outside the pomerium, and after assembling an assembly where he apologised for the ongoing war, left to fight Carbo in Etruria. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and thus the Senate. Gaius Marius, a lieutenant of Metellus, returned to Rome to stand for the consulship in 107BC. [111], The peace reached with Mithridates was condemned in ancient times as a betrayal of Roman interests for Sulla's private interest in fighting and winning the coming civil war. [33] Winning Bocchus' friendship and making plain Rome's demands for Jugurtha's deliverance, Sulla successfully concluded negotiations and secured Bocchus' capture of Jugurtha and the king's rendition to Marius' camp. In art, literature, and cultural studies, primary sources . In a typical year, the Graduate Acting Department will personally audition more than 800 students in order to select an ensemble of 16 actors. [121], Fighting in 83BC began with reverses for Sulla's opponents: their governors in Africa and Sardinia were deposed.

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